Consolidated amorphous carbon materials, their manufacture and use

ABSTRACT

A carbon based material produced from the consolidation of amorphous carbon by elevated temperature compression. The material having unique chemical and physical characteristics that lend themselves to a broad range of applications such as in electrical, electrochemical and structural fields.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/315,747,filed Dec. 10, 2002 and issued Sep. 7, 2004 as U.S. Pat. No. 6,787,235,which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/675,031,filed Sep. 28, 2000 and issued Apr. 8, 2003 as U.S. Pat. No. 6,544,648,which is a divisional of U.S. Pat. application Ser. No. 09/365,642,filed Aug. 2, 1999 and issued Feb. 26, 2002 as U.S. Pat. No. 6,350,520,which claimed the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No.60/097,862, filed Aug. 26, 1998 and U.S. Provisional Patent ApplicationNo. 60/097,960, filed Aug. 26, 1998.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to a new carbon based material, its manufactureand use. More particularly, the invention relates to a carbon basedmaterial produced from the consolidation of amorphous carbon underelevated temperature compression having a broad range of applications,such as for example, as electrode material and as structural material.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Carbon is a solid element that exists in many forms. Solid carbon canhave a tetrahedral crystalline array (diamond) or hexagonal graphineplanes. If the graphine planes are arranged in planar formations, theresulting solid is known as graphite. If the graphine planes are morerandomly arranged, the resulting form of carbon is known as amorphouscarbon. Activated carbon, carbon black and charcoal are examples ofamorphous carbon. With respect to crystallinity, graphite has shortrange and long range order, while amorphous carbon has only short rangeorder in the graphine planes. This difference is manifested in theirsurface properties with amorphous carbon being more reactive thangraphite. The difference is also manifested in the spectral patternsgenerated when the material is tested by x-ray diffraction—graphitespectra show ordered crystal patterns, while the amorphous materialpattern has no discernible pattern.

One form of amorphous carbon, activated carbon, is manufactured from anorganic source material. Typically, activated carbon is made throughcarbonization of organic materials, such as wood, coal, pitch, coconutshells, petroleum, animal bones, etc., followed by an activationprocess. During the activation process, some of the surface plateletsare burned out leaving behind many pores with different shapes andsizes, hence activated carbon with an increased surface area andporosity is generated. In general, the pore size plays a role indetermining the properties of the activated carbon for variousapplications. According to IUPAC definitions, pores can be characterizedas macropores with pore diameters above 50 nm, mesopores with porediameters between 2-50 nm, and micropores with pore diameters below 2nm. In addition to its porosity, activated carbon is conductive andusually inert in many aqueous and organic systems.

Because of its porosity, activated carbon has been widely used invarious industries as an adsorbent. The most commonly seen applicationsinclude deodorizing, decoloring of gas or liquid phase substances, andremoving of toxic organics/inorganics from air and water. The miningindustry uses activated carbon for the recovery of precious metals likegold from leaching solutions. Typically, activated carbon is packed intoa column through which the gas or liquid to be treated is percolatedcontinuously. The adsorption process takes place at the interfacebetween the carbon phase and the fluid phase.

Its large specific surface area, porosity, conductivity and inert naturemake it suited for use as an electrode in electrochemical applicationssuch as energy storage devices and water deionization/desalinationdevices. The underlying principles of these electrochemical electrodesare rooted in the way that dissolved ions in water behave next tocharged solids. Salt dissolves in water forming an electrolyte solutionwhich has no net charge, that is, the net cationic charge will exactlyequal the net anionic charge. When a charged solid (i.e., a particle,plate, etc.) is placed in such a solution, the ions of the electrolytedistribute in a manner that will minimize the charge density through alayer known as the electric double layer. Counter ions will be moreconcentrated within layers nearest the charged surface, but theconcentration will gradually decay to equal ion charge in the bulk. Acapacitor is formed between the charged surface and the net zeropotential of the bulk. A typical value for this capacitance is on theorder of 10 μF/cm² of surface area.

If two electrodes are placed in an electrolyte solution with an appliedpotential, the ions will partition so that the cations will migrate tothe cathode to fill one double layer, and the anions will migrate to theanode and fill the other double layer. The separation of the cationicand anionic species in this manner is a means to store energy(ultracapacitors) or a means to desalinate water (capacitivedeionization). Ultracapacitors have been studied as a potential storagemechanism in applications that require large energy storage devicescapable of rapid energy discharge. The primary interest of these deviceshas been in electric automobiles and electronic devices. Capacitivedeionization technology is recently being used in treating brackishwater and seawater.

The basic operating principles of carbon electrodes are readilyunderstood, but the manufacturing techniques for producing activatedcarbon electrode material have been limited. Three processes arecurrently used, identified by the types of materials they employ asfeedstock: granular activated carbon, carbonization of polymers, andcarbon aerogels.

Early in the 1950's, researchers started to use granular activatedcarbon to make electrodes for electrochemical studies. Because carbonparticles cannot consolidate under normal conditions, it is thoughtnecessary to either apply high pressure or some kind of binder to keepthe carbon particles in contact in order to form an electrode. It isdifficult to make such an electrode that is maintained under constanthigh pressure, the system would be unacceptably bulky and dangerous.Thus, most studies have been carried out on carbon electrodes with anorganic or polymeric binder mixed together with the carbon powders. Thebinders can be organic polymers, clays, or inorganic chemicals.Disadvantages exist with the use of binders to form the electrodes.Binders block a large portion of carbon surfaces, causing some pores tobe blinded, and occlusion therefore is inevitable, thus lowering theavailable surface area of the carbon. Binders also deteriorate theconductivity of the electrodes because most binders are themselvesnonconductive. The contamination from the binders also hinders theiruses in electroanalytical applications.

Modern carbon electrodes are manufactured from phenolic resins or othertypes of resins by a process in which the resin is preformed to acertain shape then subjected to high temperatures for extended periodsof time until complete carbonization occurs. The resulting carbon hasrelatively large surface area, but the manufacturing technique requiresthe use of toxic and environmentally dangerous chemicals. Often, organicsolvents and aromatic compounds, such as benzene and toluene, areevolved during the manufacturing process. The volume of carbon formed isconsiderably smaller than the original resin size which leads to lowproduct yield. This is a significant problem if specific geometricshapes or sizes are required. This manufacturing technique also has thedisadvantages of high material cost and weak material strength due tothe “shrinking” of the precursor carbon at high carbonizationtemperatures.

Some specific carbon electrodes are manufactured from aerogel compoundswith sol-gel technology by similarly carbonizing organic compounds.Resorcinol-formaldehyde, for instance, can be infiltrated into aconductive substrate or formed into a solid. Solvents may be rinsedthrough the material prior to pyrolization in an inert atmosphere, suchas in argon or nitrogen. The pyrolysis process produces a vitreouscarbon material which has a high surface area and high electricalconductivity. However, this manufacturing technique includes extremelyhigh manufacturing costs and leads to the release of organic solventssuch as acetone, formaldehyde and aromatic compounds as the substrate isthermally changed to carbon. These can pose serious health hazards toworkers near the furnaces. The final shape of the carbon materials ismuch smaller than the feed material. Additional processing would berequired to produce a specific geometric shape.

Thus, there exists a need for a more efficient, less expensive, moreenvironmentally friendly process to manufacture activated carbonelectrodes.

With respect to ultracapacitors, in the early 1980's, technology wasdeveloped to make an ultracapacitor of very large capacitance, on theorder of Farads. Normal capacitors have a pico- to micro Farad capacity.As high-energy storage devices, ultracapacitors can be used as loadleveling devices for electric and hybrid vehicles, memory backup forcomputers, as well as applications in areas such as portablecommunications, pulse energy systems and actuators. With the developmentof electrical and electronic technology, demands for high-performanceenergy storage devices have emerged and have kept growing.

The idea of ultracapacitors is based on the theory of the electricaldouble layer. An electrical double layer is the ionic layer developed atthe interface between a charged solid and an electrolyte. When apotential is applied over two electrodes in an electrolyte solution,electrical double layers are developed and a charge separation isobtained by building up of ions of opposite signs with the electrode. Ifelectrodes are polarizable, a final charge state will be reached atequilibrium. Since an electrical double layer is essentially a chargeseparation layer, it behaves as an electrical capacitor. Accordingly tothe double layer theory, the capacitance of an electrical double layerdepends on the charges stored in the double layer and the permitivity ofthe solvent within the double layer region. Typically, the specificcapacitance of a double layer is on the order of 10 μF/cm². Much efforthas been made to make ultracapacitors with various forms of activatedcarbon. Although prototype and commercial ultracapacitors have been madewith activated carbon, overall performance has not been satisfactorymainly due to the inevitable problem of occlusion from binders used orthe high cost of material manufacturing.

With respect to capacitive deionization, by taking advantage of the veryhigh surface area of activated carbon, ions can be “stored” inelectrical double layers when a potential is applied across twoactivated carbon electrodes, even though these ion species have noaffinity to activated carbon in the absence of the applied potential.Once the electrodes are grounded or the polarity is reversed, the doublelayers are relaxed/reversed, then the stored ions are released back tothe bulk solution. Therefore, a coupled deionization and regenerationprocess can be achieved. Previously, either an inert polymeric binderwas used to form a block electrode or a membrane was used to constrainthe carbon particles. As a consequence, the electrical and mass transferresistance is very high and the overall performance is poor. It is clearthat a block type electrode without a binder is greatly desired ifactivated carbon is going to be used for such electrochemicalapplications. It is obvious that a highly conductive monolithicactivated carbon material with high surface area, larger macropore sizeand of lower cost is greatly desired for effectivedesalination/deionization.

Turning now to the use of amorphous carbon in producing structuralmaterials, in the materials industry, few forms of carbon are useful forfabricating parts. Graphite is most commonly used in applicationsrequiring conductive materials with high strength and low density, suchas in various high temperature casting molds or electrode materials.Graphite can also be an admixture to improve the properties of othermaterials. Carbon reinforced with graphite fibers is a relatively newmaterial that has found broad uses in lightweight structural material,sporting equipment, such as bicycle frames, golf clubs and tennisracquets, and by NASA for use in space vehicles such as the shuttle.These materials have unique high temperature strength properties whichretain stiffness and strength even at temperatures exceeding 1650° C.These are very expensive materials because of the complex manufacturingprocess. Carbon fibers are mixed within resins, then pyrolyzed togenerate the carbon-matrix materials around the carbon fiberreinforcement. These materials are then subjected to a long andcomplicated densification process known as chemical vapor deposition toproduce the final product.

Therefore, there exists a need for a more efficient, less expensiveprocess to manufacture carbon structural materials.

In the 1950's, a metallurgical process called hot isostatic pressing(HIPing) was introduced into the area of metallurgy. HIPing involves theisostatic application of a high pressure gas at an elevated temperaturein a specifically constructed vessel. Under these conditions of heat andpressure, internal pores or defects within a solid body collapse andweld up in a process known as sintering. Encapsulated powder andsintered components alike are densified and consolidated. It is typicalto operate a HIP at temperatures of 1000-3000° C. and pressures of25,000-60,000 psi. Cold isostatic presses (CIPs) have also beendeveloped which typically apply an isostatic pressure to a material ator near room temperature.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is a novel carbon based material and process forits production which takes advantage of the properties of amorphouscarbon to produce a vastly improved material which has broadapplications. The process incorporates consolidation of amorphous carbonunder elevated temperature compression. The products of the process haveunique chemical, electrical and physical characteristics.

The novel carbon based material of the present invention is versatile soas to be used in a broad range of applications such as in themanufacture of structural materials and of electrode materials. Theprocess of the present invention is an inexpensive manufacturing methodthat produces materials that are near net shape or are readilymachinable to specifications and the process is effective at generatingmonolithic carbon material without the use of binders, or any noxious ortoxic chemicals. Carbon source material can be selected based on anycombination of properties such as available surface area, particle sizedistribution, and conductivity to produce material with optimalproperties for the specific application desired. Additionally, theprocess parameters can be optimized to produce specific materialproperties, such as degree of densification, internal porosity,available surface area, or other property that the end user may require.The process of the present invention provides for the making of largebillets of activated carbon so that production costs could be reduced.

After consolidation at elevated pressures and temperatures, novel carbonmaterial can be produced with desired surface areas, porosity, density,strength and resistivity. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) curves demonstratethat the novel material is stable over a wide potential range in aqueoussolution and therefore suitable for electrochemical applications. Acapacitive feature of the CV curves indicates that the novel material iscapable of storing a great amount of charge. The novel material issuitable for application of ultracapacitors. For example, test cellsusing electrodes of the novel material demonstrated that the capacitorhad a specific capacitance of 53 F/g in an aqueous electrolyte and 23F/g in an organic electrolyte, based upon the electrode material only.Electrodes of the novel material can be used for deionization, such asdesalination. Such electrodes are effective at removing ions at a lowenergy consumption rate.

It is a feature of the present invention to provide a novel materialmade of amorphous carbon consolidated under elevated temperature andpressure.

It is another feature of the present invention to provide amanufacturing process for the production of said novel carbon basedmaterial.

It is another feature of the present invention to provide amanufacturing process whose parameters can be altered to obtain thenovel material having optimized characteristics for a particularapplication.

It is another feature of the present invention to provide a said novelmaterial for a broad range of applications.

It is another feature of the present invention to provide an electrodemade from the novel material.

It is another feature of the present invention to provide an activatedcarbon electrode made from the novel material.

It is another feature of the present invention to provide for theapplication of this novel material for use in the desalination of water.

It is another feature of the present invention to provide for theapplication of this novel material for use in ultracapacitors.

It is another feature of the present invention to provide theapplication of this novel material for use in the removal of solids fromwater in a manner of dewatering slurries or separating different solidsin suspensions.

It is another feature of the present invention to provide theapplication of this novel material for use in the direct electroplatingof metal from aqueous and non-aqueous electrolyte solutions.

It is another feature of the present invention to provide theapplication of this novel material in the deionization of water.

It is another feature of the present invention to provide theapplication of this novel material in environmental processing for thedirect electrochemical destruction of pollutants and contaminants suchas from water.

It is another feature of the present invention to provide theapplication of this novel material in water treatment, such as watersoftening and pH control.

It is another feature of the present invention to provide said novelmaterial for use as a carbon structural material in a broad range ofapplications.

It is another feature of the present invention to provide the parametersof the manufacturing process for production of the novel material thatcould be used as a carbon-based composite or carbonaceous structuralmaterial.

It is another feature of the present invention to provide theapplication of this novel material for uses in highly corrosive orchemically active environments.

It is another feature of the present invention to provide theapplication of this novel material for uses in high temperatureapplications.

It is another feature of the present invention to provide theapplication of this novel material in uses in applications requiringmaterials of high strength, low density and/or specific porosity.

Other features and advantages of the invention will become apparent tothose of ordinary skill in the art upon review of the followingdrawings, detailed description and claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a flowchart of one embodiment of the process embodying theinvention;

FIG. 2(a) is a graph depicting exemplary pressure and temperatureprofiles for the process for manufacturing an electrode material;

FIG. 2(b) is a graph depicting exemplary pressure and temperatureprofiles for the process for manufacturing a structural material;

FIG. 3 is a front view of a capsule used in the process;

FIG. 4 is a graph of a temperature and pressure profile used in oneembodiment of the process;

FIG. 5 is a graph of the relative pore sizes for the novel materialmanufactured under various pressures;

FIG. 6 is a schematic of the set up for the study of electrochemicalproperties of the novel material;

FIG. 7 is a graph of cyclic voltammetry (CV) curves of the novelmaterial;

FIG. 8 is a graph of CV curves of the novel material;

FIG. 9 is a graph of CV curves of the novel material;

FIG. 10 is a graph of CV curves of the novel material;

FIG. 11 is a schematic depicting the use of the novel material in anultracapacitor;

FIG. 12 is a schematic depicting a desalination/deionization cellutilizing the novel material as an activated carbon electrode; and

FIG. 13 is a graph showing the performance of a desalination deviceutilizing the novel material as an electrode to remove salt from water,with the initial part of the plot showing how the capacity of the deviceis loaded, the peak of the plot showing how the device is regenerated byshorting the charge causing the salt to return into the bulk solution.

Before one embodiment of the invention is explained in detail, it is tobe understood that the invention is not limited in its application tothe details of construction and the arrangement of components set forthin the following description or illustrated in the drawings. Theinvention is capable of other embodiments and of being practiced orbeing carried out in various ways. Also, it is to be understood that thephraseology and terminology used herein is for the purpose ofdescription and should not be regarded as limiting.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT

The present invention involves the consolidation of amorphous carbonusing heat and pressure for a prescribed time to produce a novelmaterial, termed herein consolidated amorphous carbon (CAC) material,that is still amorphous and that has superior properties over currentlyavailable carbon materials. The properties of the CAC material can bealtered by choosing different source materials, by controlling theprocess parameters of the manufacturing process, or by blending specificmaterials prior to processing. The properties of the CAC material thatcan be varied include, for example, densification, strength, porosity,conductivity and adsorptive surface area. By selecting materials andprocess parameters to achieve desired properties, CAC materials can betailored for their use in a specific application such as electrochemicalapplications (i.e., water treatment, desalination, energy storagedevices) or structural materials (i.e., carbon-carbon composites, lowdensity/high strength members). The resulting CAC material is strongenough for handling and is able to be machined, ground or cut into thedesired shape. Grinding or cutting tools such as a diamond cutting sawcan be used to bring the CAC material to the final specifications forthe specific application. The CAC material visually looks like non-shinygraphite.

With respect to source material, preferably, the form of amorphouscarbon that is used in the present process is powder activated carbon.The examples set forth herein utilize this form of amorphous carbon,however, it should be noted that the invention is not limited to theactivated carbon form of amorphous carbon. The principle characteristicof the CAC material that may be altered by using different amorphouscarbon source material is the adsorptive surface area. Carbon particlesthat have high specific surface areas (as measured by the BET isothermor other analytical techniques) can be selected to increase the netsurface area of the CAC material after processing. Carbon sourcematerial can be selected based upon surface area, hardness, density andgrain size.

For example, activated granular carbon with an active surface area of1400 m²/g was used to manufacture bulk CAC material that had a netsurface area of about 1200 m²/g. CAC material was observed to havesurface areas approximately 10% less than the original source materialdepending on the processing parameters. Activated carbon is currentlycommercially available with adsorptive surface areas as high as 3000m²/g and it is believed that the process of the present invention couldbe used to generate CAC materials with 2800 m²/g of surface area.

Preferably, the device that carries out the elevated temperaturecompression of the amorphous carbon is a hot isostatic press (HIP) suchas the MINI HIPer manufactured by ABB Autoclave Systems Inc. Anadvantage of using isostatic pressure is that the consolidation of thecarbon is uniform throughout the material. However, it should be notedthat other devices in addition to HIPs can be utilized for theconsolidation under heat and pressure of the amorphous carbon.

With respect to the process parameters in the manufacture of the CACmaterials, the process parameters of temperature, pressure and time canbe varied to alter the specific characteristics and properties of theproduced CAC material. Preferably, the temperature can range from 200°C. to 2700° C., the pressure can range from 500 to 50,000 psi and theholding time or time at temperature and pressure may vary from 0.5 to 20hours. Preferably, the target pressure is obtained and the temperatureis thereafter ramped up to the target value in a period of time such asone hour. It will be appreciated that all of these parameters interactand that one could use a condition outside these cited ranges bycompensating changes in other parameters.

The specific combination of parameters that may be applied is determinedfor the specific material properties desired. For example, powderactivated carbon consolidated at a temperature of 800° C. and a pressureof 3 ksi for one hour is more porous and more brittle than carbonconsolidated at a temperature of 900° C. and a pressure of 25 ksi forone hour. The first CAC material is best used in an application such asan electrode, while the second CAC material could be used as astructural material. Generally, changes to the process parameters oftemperature, pressure and time directly effect the properties of finaldensity, strength, and porosity of the CAC material while the propertiesof conductivity, strength and adsorptive surface area are altered tolesser degree.

With respect to temperature in particular, the temperature range of 600°C. to 1400° C. is most preferred for most applications. Most preferredtemperatures for forming electrodes from CAC material is in the lowerend of the range, from about 600° C. to about 1000° C. Most preferredtemperatures for forming structural products from CAC material is in thehigher end of the temperature range, from about 800° C. to about 1400°C.

With respect to pressure in particular, most preferably, the pressureranges from 500 psi to 25,000 psi. Pressures in the lower end of theseranges, for example 500 psi to 20,000 psi are typically preferred formaking electrode material. Pressures in the higher end of the range,from 2000 psi to 25,000 psi are typically preferred for makingstructural products. Pressure has an influence on the capacitance of anyelectrode made from CAC material. With higher pressures, more densematerials are produced, macropore size shifts and therefore a CACmaterial with a lower capacitance is obtained.

With respect to holding time, holding times of from about 0.75 hours toabout 10 hours are typical for the present process. Preferably, forelectrode material, the holding times are shorter due to the desiredsurface area and porosity. It is generally beneficial to cool the CACmaterial products gradually after processing. Gradual cooling rates offrom about 200° C./hr to about 1000° C./hr are typically, with ranges of300° C./hr to 800° C./hr being most preferred.

Mixing fibers or other particles with the carbon source material priorto processing can dramatically increase the tensile and compressivestrength of the CAC material. Long graphite fibers, for example, can beblended to improve the directional strength. Short whiskers could beadded to improve the strength isotropically. Depending on the processingparameters, the carbon particles in the source material will interactwith any added carbon fibers in much the same way that they interactwith each other, reducing the amount of pull-out or crack propagation.The weight proportion of added material in the final CAC product canrange from 0% to 40% and higher.

Referring now to FIG. 1, one specific embodiment of the present processis illustrated for the efficient and environmentally benign productionof CAC materials. The illustrated process utilizes granular amorphouscarbon that has been prepared such as by grinding or drying. The carbonparticles are loaded into a capsule such as a metal can made from copperor stainless steel, and thereafter subjected to isostatic pressure andtemperature for a period of time in a HIP. The process parameters arevaried in a manner commensurate with the desired end use of the materialproduced. As shown in FIG. 1, typical process parameter values include 3ksi at 800° C. for 1 hour. Further examples of pressure, temperature andtime profiles are shown in FIG. 2(a) for exemplary CAC electrodematerial and FIG. 2(b) for exemplary structural CAC material.

The process of the present invention as shown in FIG. 1 yields amonolithic type material of consolidated activated carbon withoutbinders. The mechanism of consolidation under elevated temperature andpressure is believed to be related to the limited diffusion taking placein the region where the activated carbon powders are in contact. From apowder sintering point of view, the curvature of the particle surfaceprovides the driving force for consolidation as the system tends toreduce the surface energy by reducing the curvature of the particlesurface. Carbon is a material with an extremely high melting (softening)point, about 3650° C. for graphite. Therefore, sintering of carbon isalmost impossible under normal conditions without the addition ofbinders or fluxes. According to the present invention, sintering ofactivated carbon is made possible by the application of certainpressure.

A more specific example of the novel process is set forth as follows.Activated carbon granules, CX0648-1 available from EM Science, size0.5-0.85 mm, BET specific surface area 1400 m²/g, were washed withdistilled water and dried at 70° C. for 24 hours. A rod mill was used togrind the dried granules into fine powders. The grinding process lastedabout 15 minutes at room temperature. A copper can with a design asillustrated in FIG. 3 was used as the capsule. The activated carbonpowders were filled through the stems of the capsule which was sealedright after filling was finished. The filled capsule was then degassedunder vacuum for 12 hours at a temperature of 150° C. Copper wool andporous alumina were used as a filter to avoid the carbon powder beingdrawn out. After degassing, the stem was sealed with argon weld and thepackage was ready for elevated temperature compression. The HIPtechnique was employed and carried out using an ABB Autoclave SystemsInc. MINI HIPer with argon as the medium. A temperature of 800° C. wasused. In order to consolidate the carbon powders while maintaining thelarge surface area and high porosity, a low pressure range was used,which specifically ranged from 3 ksi (21 MPa) up to 25 ksi (172 MPa).The holding time was one hour to ensure good consolidation. The timescheme used is illustrated in FIG. 4. After cooling to room temperature,the capsule was cut open and the hockey puck like CAC material wasremoved.

The monolithic CAC material manufactured by this novel process can becharacterized by any of several properties including adsorptive surfacearea, porosity, density, strength, conductivity, surface morphology,x-ray diffraction and electrochemical properties. Each of theseproperties will be discussed in detail below.

With respect to surface area, this property can be measured for exampleusing a BET surface area analyzer, model ASAP 2000 from MicromeriticsInstrument Corporation. A sample of the CAC material is prepared bycrushing the material into particles with a nominal size of about 2 mm.Before the BET measurement, samples are degassed at 250° C. under a flowof helium gas to remove moisture, and then weighed. Low temperaturenitrogen gas (77 K) is used for BET analysis. In this analysis, thenitrogen gas is adsorbed on the clean solid surface to form a singlemolecular layer. The total amount of gas adsorbed is then determined bymeasuring the pressure change before and after an equilibrium state. Thesolid surface area is then calculated.

The BET measured surface area for CAC material using powder activatedcarbon processed at different pressures at 800° C. for 1 hour in a HIPare set forth in Table 1 as follows. TABLE 1 Results of BET Analysis ForCAC Material Processed with Different Pressures HIP Pressure BETSpecific Total Pore Micropore Volume (ksi)/(MPa) Surface Area Volume (d< 20 Å) at 800° C. (m²/g) (cm³/g) (cm³/g) 25/172  931 ± 15 0.4599 0.206710/69  1026 ± 20 0.5068 0.2064 3/21 1238 ± 21 0.7159 0.2149 rawactivated carbon 1400 ± 22 0.6239 0.2077

From Table 1 it can be seen that the surface area of the carbondecreased by only approximately 10% with consolidation at 3 ksi. Thiscan be explained by the fact that higher pressures promote densificationof the source material and tend to close the pores of the carbon. Incomparison, with other activated carbon materials using binders, thesurface area is reduced greatly (>50%) because of the occlusion effect.From the pore volume data set forth in Table 1, one can see that themicropore volumes of pores less than 20 Å did not change with thepressure. However, the total pore volume decreased significantly withthe increases in pressure.

Accordingly, by changing the process parameters and by the selection ofthe source material, CAC material with varying surface areas, forexample, between 400 m²/g and 3000 m²/g, can be produced.

Turning now to porosity, macroporosity and mesoporosity can be analyzedusing a conventional mercury penetration method and a PORESIZER 9320available from Micromeritics Instrument Corporation. During theanalysis, mercury is intruded under certain pressure into the pores ofthe specimen. When an equilibrium state is reached, the applied pressurebalances with the surface tension of mercury inside the pores. Bymeasuring the volume intruded into the specimen, the pore volumes ofcorrespondent pore diameters can be determined. Mercury pressure canrange from atmospheric pressure to 30,000 psi (210 MPa) corresponding toa minimum pore diameter of about 6 mm. The pore diameters with largestvolume and total porosity of the CAC materials analyzed are set forth inTable 2. TABLE 2 Results of Mercury Porosimetry Tests on CAC MaterialsHIP Pressure Pore Diameter of Micropore Skeletal (ksi)/(MPa) Max. VolumePorosity Volume (d < 20 Å) Density at 800° C. (nm) (%) (cm³/g) (g/cm³)25/172 61 11.94 0.7517 1.1918 10/69  330 16.83 0.9387 1.1287 3/21 72031.02 1.0495 1.0897 raw activated 909 19.76 0.6606 0.8233 carbon

Pore size distribution of CAC material with differing process pressuresat 800° C. is shown in FIG. 5. It can be seen from Table 2 and FIG. 5that the pore size distribution of the CAC material is related to theprocess pressure. For example, the pore diameter of maximum pore volumeis the largest when activated carbon powders were consolidated under aprocess pressure of 3 ksi. With the increase in pressure, the porediameter of maximum pore volume shifts to smaller sizes and the totalpore volume decreases. Since macropores as large as several hundrednanometers will greatly facilitate the process of mass transfer ofelectrochemically active species in the electrolyte, they are animportant characteristic for activated carbon electrodes. From Table 2it can also be seen that the skeletal density of consolidated activatedcarbon is less than 1.5 g/cm³, which indicates that the microporosity isstill large after consolidation using the present invention.

The degree of porosity (pore volume remaining between the particlesafter processing) of the CAC material can vary from about 55% (voids byvolume) to less than 1% depending of the process parameters employed.Typically, the higher porosity CAC material (less consolidation) isideal for electrochemical applications while more consolidated CACmaterial (less porosity) will have better structural properties.Porosity has an influence on the CAC material's capacity for ion storagesuch as in desalination units and also affects regeneration time whenCAC electrodes are discharged. The voids between the carbon particlestend to shrink as the CAC process continues and they could be completelyeliminated provided that a sufficiently high temperature and pressureare achieved. These voids, however, are found to be useful in theelectrochemical applications since they would allow electrolytes toreach the inner part of the electrode. Thus, to retain some porosity, alower pressure is preferred in this case while it is necessary tomaintain high temperatures in order to facilitate the diffusion process(i.e. consolidation).

With respect to density, the process parameters can be controlled toincrease densification so that the CAC material will have bettermechanical properties and be cheaper to produce than currentcarbon-carbon composites or structural materials which are manufacturedby a resin pyrolysis process. Because the CAC material is principallyparticles of carbon that have been sintered by the manufacturingprocess, the degree of densification will determine the density of thematerial. Consolidation of amorphous carbon particles at hightemperatures and pressures causes the particles to bond togetherresulting in a monolithic material that has excellent thermal propertiesand high strength.

With respect to strength of the CAC material, the consolidation processof the present invention results in a material that has high strengthand excellent thermal properties. Strength can be determined by standardtensile and compression tests and will vary with the degree ofdensification. CAC material that has little or no void spacing will havehigher strength than CAC material with more void volume. The strengthcan be increased if fibers are admixed with the carbon prior toconsolidation. Carbon fibers, for instance, will bond with the carbonpowders. This bonding will give the CAC material greater strength bydramatically halting crack propagation.

With respect to the property of conductivity, conductivity is animportant property of electrode material. To be effective, electrodematerial has to be highly conductive. Typically, activated carbonparticles mixed with binder materials to form solid electrodes have ahigh resistivity of more than 15 Ω·cm. CAC materials can be producedhaving much lower conductivity values, on the order of 0.04 Ω·cm to 1.5Ω·cm, for example. The electrical resistivity of the CAC material can bemeasured with a conventional four-point probe resistivity instrument.The resistivity of the specimen is calculated by dividing the suppliedcurrent from the voltage measured, with the results further correctedfor the specimen shape factor. Exemplary results are as follows. TABLE 3Resistivity of CAC Material HIP Pressure at 800° C. for 1 hour (ksi/MPa)Resistivity (Ω · cm) 25/172 0.047 10/69  0.060 3/21 0.134

As shown in Table 3, the higher the process pressure, the lower theresistivity of the CAC electrode material. However, even at lowerprocess pressures of 3 ksi, the resistivity of the CAC material is stilllow as compared with those activated carbon materials using binders. Thereason for this is that the carbon particles in the CAC material areinterconnected rather than merely in contact with each other.

With respect to surface morphology, this property of CAC material can beinvestigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). SEM pictures ofthe fractured surface of CAC materials processed at different parameterswere obtained. From these SEM pictures, it can be seen that the carbonparticles formed agglomerates during processing even though no binderwas used. At lower temperatures or lower pressures, the carbon particlesstill kept their shape, with large voids between them. For highertemperatures and pressures, the carbon particles tended to mingle andform a continuous matrix structure. Neck formations between carbonparticles are seen indicating that the particles are interconnectedafter processing rather than loosely bonded as in the case where bindersare used. Such an interconnected particle structure provides thematerial with strength and conductivity.

With respect to x-ray diffraction, because the source material isamorphous carbon, and the parameters of the process are not stringentenough to recrystallize the carbon to form graphite, x-ray diffractionpatterns of the CAC material show little or no crystallization. Theprocess of the present invention is not intended to crystallize thecarbon source material but rather makes the random pattern of graphineplanes less random.

Turning now to electrochemical properties of the CAC material, theseproperties can be studied with a computerized potentiostat and the setup as shown in FIG. 6. For example, CAC material was cut into pieces ofelectrode material dimension as 15×15×1 mm. A graphite block was used asa current collector and supporting material. The CAC electrode materialwas adhered to the graphite with graphite powder filled epoxy. Otherexposed surfaces of the graphite were encapsulated with epoxy to avoidcontact with electrolytes. The assembled electrode was then mounted onone end of a 20 cm glass tube through which a copper wire was directedas the lead.

One electrochemical property investigated was cyclic voltammetry (CV).CV is an electrochemical method used for studies of redox couples of asystem. In a CV study, the applied voltage over the working and counterelectrode (or reference electrode) ramps up and down. During thisprocess, if a redox couple exists in the system, a current peak will bedepicted in the current profile in both scan directions. These peaksrepresent the generation and consumption of a reduction or oxidationspecies brought by the variation of the applied potential. If there isno significant redox reaction taking place in the system, the currentvs. potential curve will be flat indicating that the electrode is stablewithin the scan range.

To investigate the behavior of the CAC material as an electrode inaqueous systems, CV experiments were carried out. A CAC materialelectrode was used in the set up of FIG. 6 with a platinum basket usedas the counter electrode and a saturated calomel electrode used as thereference electrode. FIG. 7 is a graph showing the cyclic voltammogramof the CAC material (processed at 3 ksi pressure at 800° C. for 1 hour)in a 1 M KCl solution with different scan rates. It can be seen fromFIG. 7 that the CV curves show a featureless polarization in both scandirections, while a capacitive nature of the electrode is clearly seenby noticing that the current increases with the scanning rate. Thepotential window is wide enough (-1.0 to 1.0 vs. SCE) to allow the CACmaterial electrode to be used for general applications in aqueoussolutions without significant oxidation/reduction reactions between theelectrode material and the solvent.

FIG. 8 shows the CV curves of a CAC material electrode which wasprocessed at 3 ksi pressure at 800° C. for 1 hour. The electrolyte usedwas a 30%wt sulfuric acid solution, which is widely used forultracapacitors. The featureless curves indicate that the CAC materialis suitable to be used as electrodes in ultracapacitors. The specificcapacitance of the electrode is estimated at about 210F/g. FIGS. 9 and10 illustrate the CV curves for CAC material electrodes processed underhigher pressures. One can see that with higher pressures, the doublelayer charging current decreases.

The CAC material of the present invention has superior properties overcurrent carbon based materials. Carbon electrode materials require goodelectrical conductivity, and, for most applications, require largesurface areas. As previously described, actuated carbons are veryconductive, consolidation of the particles will ensure that allparticles are connected making the monolithic solid conductive. Byselecting high surface area carbon for the processing accordingly to theinvention, for example, 2000-3000 m²/g, the CAC electrode materialgenerated by the process will have considerably larger available surfaceareas than current materials. The CAC material described herein has asubstantially higher net capacity for ions or charge than currentlyavailable materials. The CAC material of the present invention hasexcellent electrical conductivity and very high specific surface area(>1200 m²/g) depending on the source material used.

Some of the specific applications potentially available for this CACmaterial include, but are not limited to, the following two areas,activated carbon electrode material and structural carbon materials.Other applications not specifically stated for the novel CAC materialare assumed to be part of the invention.

The novel CAC material has exceptional properties for use as electrodematerial. The process parameters for producing CAC electrode materialshould be maintained to only partially densify the carbon materials,thus keeping larger pores between the particles, but still maintaininggood particle-particle contact. The macroporosity, controlled by thedegree of consolidation attained while processing, enables the CACmaterial to be better for electric double layer storage materials. Thefollowing list describes some of the potential applications for thenovel CAC material as an activated carbon electrode, however, this listis not intended to limit the potential application of the CAC material:desalination of brackish or sea water; deionization of water; watertreatment including softening or pH control; solid-liquid separationincluding removal of fine, solid particles from water streams orslurries; metal concentration or direct recovery by electroplating;environmental processing including direct electrochemical destruction ofpollutants and contaminants from water; ultracapacitor; energy storagedevices for electric cars, electronic devices, etc.; batteries and fuelcells.

The novel CAC material has exceptional properties for use as structuralmaterials. Carbon structural materials require little or nomacroporosity to be effective. Accordingly, the process parameters forCAC material intended for structural use should be chosen to more fullydensify the carbon materials, thus reducing the net amount of largeporosity. Fibers such as those of graphite, silicon carbide, etc. couldbe blended with the carbon source material in varying amounts to providestructural reinforcement in the CAC material. The following listdescribes some of the potential applications for the CAC material as astructural material, however, this list is not intended to limit thepotential application of the CAC material: applications in corrosive orchemically active environments; applications requiring high-temperaturestrength; applications of materials with high strength/weight ratio andapplications of materials with low density.

The following are examples of the use of the novel CAC material invarying applications. The examples are intended to be illustrative ofpotential uses of the CAC material and are not intended to limit theapplication of the CAC material.

EXAMPLE 1

Ultracapacitor

If an electrolyte solution is placed between two electrodes made of theCAC material, an applied voltage will separate the various ions of theelectrolyte into the respective double layers that form. The result is adevice that can store electrical energy, which can be quickly recovered.When a battery is discharged quickly, its voltage will dropsubstantially. Net result of periodic discharges is a shorter batterylife. But, if a storage device is available that could take the burdenof fast discharges, then it could be used in combination with a battery,and thus extend the battery's life through a process known as loadleveling. Such applications could be incorporated into modem electriccars, electric toys, etc.

With reference to FIG. 11, an ultracapacitor was constructed using CACmaterial as electrodes. Two pieces of the electrodes were sandwichedbetween two graphite current collectors which have been impregnated withwax to make them leak-proof and were polished before use. The electrodeswere dried in a vacuum oven for at least 12 hours and subsequentlyback-filled with desired electrolytes to ensure good impregnation. Theelectrodes were further ultrasonically treated for 15 minutes to removeloose particles on the outer surfaces. A glass fiber or non-woven clothwas placed between the electrodes to function as an insulatingseparator. A thermal shrinkable tube was used as a casing material.Assembled ultracapacitors were tested under different charging anddischarging conditions. Differential capacitance was measured by aconstant current discharge method. The maximum discharge current wasestimated with a potential step method.

Two electrolyte systems were used for the ultracapacitors, an inorganicaqueous system and an organic non-aqueous system. For the inorganicsystem, 30%wt of sulfuric acid (reagent grade) in deionized water wasused as the electrolyte. The results are set forth in Table 4 below.TABLE 4 Specific Capacitance of Ultracapacitors made from CAC materialElectrodes at 1.0 V Potential Cell Specific Mass Specific VolumeSpecific HIP Pressure Capacitance Capacitance of the Capacitance of the(ksi/MPa) (F/g) Electrode (F/g) Electrode (F/cm3) 3 53 212 160 10 45 160152 21 20 80 84

The capacitance per unit area is calculated by dividing the massspecific capacitance by the value of the surface area (see Table 1) withthe results as follows in Table 5. TABLE 5 Double Layer Capacitance PerUnit Area HIP Pressure (ksi/MPa) Capacitance Per Unit Area (μF/cm2) 3/2117.0 10/69  15.6 25/172 8.6

In order to inspect the ultracapacitor's ability to quickly dischargeits stored energy, a CAC material (processed at the 800° C. and 3 ksifor 1 hour) capacitor was subjected to discharge at various currentdensities. The capacitance measured for each discharging condition islisted in Table 6. TABLE 6 Capacitance at Different DischargingConditions Discharging Current Measured Cell Specific Density (mA/cm2)Capacitance (F/g) 3 51 30 53 100 48

Table 6 demonstrates that the novel CAC material electrodes are capableof undergoing rapid charging and discharging.

The energy density of the ultracapacitors was calculated to be higherthan 7 Wh/kg based on electrode materials only, and 3.5 Wh/kg if onetakes into account the weight of the electrolyte, separator and currentcollector.

The peak power density of the capacitors was estimated using a transientmethod. For material with a density of 0.75 g/cm³, a 2 cm2×O.1 cmelectrode weighs 0.15 g and a total of 0.3 g of electrode material wasused for the cell. A power density based on the CAC electrode materialis estimated to be 23 kW/kg. This performance is made possible by theunique pore size distribution and the high conductivity of the CACmaterial.

Turning now to the organic system, since the break down voltage of anorganic electrolyte is much higher than an aqueous electrolyte, a higheroperating cell voltage can be achieved by using an organic electrolyte.For the organic system, propylene carbonate (PC, Alfa AESAR, 99%) wasused as the solvent with tetraammoniumethylene tetrafluoroborate(Et₄BF₄) as the salt, at a concentration of 1 M. Since PC is verysensitive to moisture, all tests with the organic system were carriedout in a glove box under a dry nitrogen atmosphere. The measuredcapacitance of the CAC material (processed at 800° C. and 3 ksi for 1hour) at 3 V potential was 22.5 F/g, corresponding to an energy densityof 28 Wh/kg of electrode material. If the cell voltage is 2.8 V, anenergy density of 24.6 Wh/kg is estimated.

EXAMPLE 2

Desalination Unit

A capacitor of CAC material could be used to remove the salt from water,in much the same manor as an energy storage device stores energy. As thecharged units “load up” on the salts from the water, the units willcharge. Once filled, the unit energy could be used to drive a secondunit. As the first discharges, the salt ions fixed on the surface willbe discharged, thus regenerating the electrode for reuse. The net energysavings of desalination could be large, as compared to currenttechniques, such as reverse osmosis, distillation, etc., which areprocesses that require high pressures and/or high temperatures. Inaddition, given the larger capacity of the CAC material, the size of theunits would be greatly reduced compared to conventional desalinationunits with currently available carbon.

With reference to FIG. 12, a desalination cell was built with CACmaterial as a carbon electrode. The carbon electrodes of 55×15×0.8 mmwere attached to graphite foil current collectors with a thin layer ofgraphite powder filled epoxy in a bipolar configuration. A rubber gasketbetween the current feeders creates a channel between the two facingcarbon electrode plates. A peristaltic pump was used to keep a constantflow of the solution. The concentration change of the salt at the outletwas monitored by a specific conductance meter. The applied voltagesranged from 0.8 to 1.2 V. Solutions with a conductivity ranging from 100to 1000 μS were tested. All experiments were carried out at roomtemperature.

The results demonstrated the significant desalting effects were apparentwith CAC material as the electrodes, considering the fact that activatedcarbon has no affinity to NaCl if there was no electric potentialapplied. The desalting effectiveness was more significant with theincrease of the applied potential, about 80% removal of salt wasachieved at 1.2 V. It was observed that the regeneration process wasfaster than the desalting process.

Upon application of 1.2 V potential across the CAC material electrodes,a significant decrease in dissolved salt concentration can be achieved,as illustrated in FIG. 13. When the electrodes were shorted or grounded,the “absorbed” ions were released back into solution, and a peak saltconcentration can be observed at the outlet. By doing so, a desalinationand regeneration cycle is completed and the cell is ready for the nextcycle. Since there is no large resistance to the flow of treatmentsolution, the pressure head is very low compared with a reverse osmosisprocess. Significant energy reduction using the CAC material electrodesis achieved over the distillation and RO processes of waterdesalination. Experiments showed that a very low current is required fordesalting. In comparison with aerogel carbon electrodes, the CACmaterial electrodes have the advantage of rapid discharging rate becauseof the large macropores, and a relatively low cost to produce.

The desalting cells can be used for removing various ionic species inaddition to NaCl. As long as a sufficient potential is applied acrossthe CAC material electrode, ions will be removed from the solution andstored in the double layer. After the electrodes are shorted, the ionsare put back into the solution. An example with respect to softeningwater is set forth immediately below.

EXAMPLE 3

Deionization/Water Softening

A stream of Houghton, Mich. drinking water was pumped through adesalination cell constructed using CAC material as illustrated in FIG.12 under a 1.2 V potential. All concentrations were determined using aninductively coupled plasma spectrophotometer. Significant removal ofCa⁺², Mg⁻², and Na⁺ions was observed, as set forth in Table 7. The tableshows the specific ion concentrations in the feed water, the productwater, and in the water that was in the cell when the voltage wasshorted for regeneration. TABLE 7 Deionization of Houghton, MI Tap Water(ICP Results) Houghton MI Tap Metal Water Concentration Deionized WaterRegeneration Waste Ions (ppm) Concentration (ppm) Concentration (ppm)Ca⁺² 60.00 none detected 160.0 Mg⁺² 11.88 none detected 31.11 Na⁺ 16.16none detected 44.82

Because of the fact that anions and cations are adsorbed on anodes andcathodes separately, scaling problems are reduced to a minimum.Deionization using CAC material electrodes is applicable to bothindustrial and household uses. For example, it can be used as a watersoftening treatment system for drinking water or for feed water toboilers. Electroplating and mining industries produce large amounts ofwaste discharges which could be treated with application of the presentinvention.

EXAMPLE 4

Copper Plating

CAC material was attached to a Pb current feeder and used as an anode inan electroplating circuit. Copper was plated on the cathode fromsolutions containing 400 mg Cu⁺²/L at a voltage of 1.2 V. The largesurface area of the anode improved the plating efficiency for even lowconcentration solutions. The charging current at the anode eliminatesthe necessity for a large overpotential as in conventional platingarrangements. The significance of this is that the CAC electrodematerial could be used effectively to directly recover copper from verylow concentration solutions with very high current efficiency. Currenttechnology for recovering copper from low concentration solutions usessolvents to concentrate copper to 30-40 g/L (300-400 times moreconcentrated than was used in this test of the CAC electrode material)to ensure high plating efficiencies. However, comparable platingefficiencies were noted with CAC material and a lower potential wasrequired for plating as well.

EXAMPLE 5

Metal Concentration

Metal ions in aqueous solutions can be concentrated in much the samemanner as demonstrated in Example 3. Low-grade gold ores areeconomically processed by dissolving the gold into cyanide solutions.The gold concentration in the solution is usually too low concentrations(as low as 1 mg Au/L) without further treatment. Typically, granularactivated carbon is used to adsorb the dissolved gold from leachsolutions. Once loaded with Au, the ions are stripped into solutions atconcentrations of 10 to 1000 times higher than the feed concentrations.The stripped solutions can then be processed to recover the metallicgold.

Cathode and anode electrodes made of the CAC material were placed in asolution of gold cyanide. When no voltage was applied, both electrodesadsorbed 3 mg of Au/g of carbon. When a 1.2 V potential was applied, theanode adsorbed over 5.4 mg of Au/g. In a concentrating apparatus similarto the desalination unit, dilute Au solutions can be treated to removethe gold, and regeneration (by shorting of the potential) will result inhigher gold concentrations. The advantage to this technique would be inthe complete regenerative properties of the CAC material.

Example 6

Destruction and Removal of Cyanide

Sodium and potassium cyanide are important reagents in the metal platingindustry, precious metal mining, and in dye manufacturing, and areextremely poisonous. Very small amounts of free CN are allowed in wastestreams from these industries. The CAC material electrodes are effectiveat removing the CN in water by electrochemical oxidation.

Solutions containing low amounts of NaCN were pumped through thedesalination units described in Example 3. It was observed that thepotential on the units was sufficient to oxidize the free cyanidedirectly to cyanate (OCN). While cyanide is a regulated toxin, cyanateis not toxic or controlled, and is free to be discharged to wastelocations. This result indicates the power of the process to destroyenvironmentally troublesome matter in water.

EXAMPLE 7

Particle Slurry Separation

Particles generate a small electrochemical charge when placed in water.The magnitude and sign of the charge is determined by the solidcomposition and the electrolyte concentration in the water. Removal offine particles (such as clays, phosphates, potash) from water isdifficult because the like charges on the particles tend to repel eachother. This action tends to stabilize the fine particles in the water;that is, the fine particles will not flocculate, and settle.

When the CAC material electrode was placed in a slurry, and a 1.2 Vpotential was applied between it and a graphite electrode (anode), theresult showed that fine, negatively charged particles migrated andattached to the anode, much like anions in an electrolyte solution. Theanode could be taken out of the slurry, the solids removed, and be readyfor reloading. Placing the cathode electrode in a solution of ferric andferrous iron readily discharged it. The electrode discharge reactionresulted in the reduction of Fe⁺³ to Fe⁺².

After discharging, it was ready to remove more solids.

1. An electrode formed of a processed carbon material comprisingamorphous carbon that has been consolidated under elevated temperatureand pressure, wherein the temperature is less than 1000° C.
 2. Theelectrode set forth in claim 1, wherein processed carbon material hasbeen consolidated with a temperature in the range of at least about 600°C.
 3. The electrode set forth in claim 1, wherein the processed carbonmaterial has been consolidated with a pressure in the range of about500-20,000 psi.
 4. The electrode set forth in claim 1, wherein theprocessed carbon material has been consolidated under elevatedtemperature and pressure for a holding time in the range of about 0.5-10hours.
 5. The electrode set forth in claim 1, wherein the processedcarbon material has a surface area of at least 800 m²/g.
 6. Theelectrode set forth in claim 1, wherein the processed carbon materialhas an electrical resistivity in the range of 0.040-0.150 Ω·cm.
 7. Theelectrode set forth in claim 1, wherein the processed carbon materialhas a porosity of at least 12%.
 8. The electrode set forth in claim 1,wherein the electrode is used in at least one of the followingapplications: an ultracapacitor, a water treatment system, anelectroplating circuit, a desalination cell, a metal concentrationsystem, a waste treatment system, a solid-liquid separation system, abattery, a fuel cell, and combinations thereof.
 9. A method forperforming electrochemistry, the method comprising: providing a firstelectrode comprising activated amorphous carbon consolidated underelevated temperature and pressure; placing the first electrode in fluidcommunication with a liquid comprising at least one of an electrolytesolution or a slurry; and applying a potential difference between thefirst electrode and a reference electrode.
 10. The method set forth inclaim 9, wherein the first electrode is formed by consolidatingactivated amorphous carbon at temperature of less than 1000° C.
 11. Themethod set forth in claim 9, wherein the reference electrode includes asecond electrode comprising activated amorphous carbon consolidatedunder elevated temperature and pressure.
 12. The method set forth inclaim 9, wherein the liquid comprises an electrolyte solution, andfurther comprising removing ions from the electrolyte solution byforming an electrical double layer between the electrolyte solution andthe first electrode.
 13. The method set forth in claim 12, furthercomprising grounding the first electrode to discharge the ions from thefirst electrode; reapplying a potential difference between the firstelectrode and a reference electrode to reuse the first electrode toperform electrochemistry.
 14. The method set forth in claim 12, whereinremoving ions from the electrolyte solution includes removing at leastone of metal ions and salt ions.
 15. The method set forth in claim 12,wherein removing ions from the electrolyte solution includes removingions to perform at least one of the following functions: desalinatingwater, deionizing water, concentrating metal ions, and removingpollutants from at least one of a waste stream and water.
 16. The methodset forth in claim 9, wherein applying a potential difference betweenthe first electrode and a reference electrode includes establishing acharge separation between the first electrode and the electrolytesolution to form an ultracapacitor.
 17. The method set forth in claim 9,wherein applying a potential difference between the first electrode anda reference electrode includes establishing an electroplating circuit.18. The method set forth in claim 9, wherein the liquid comprises aslurry having charged particles, and further comprising attracting thecharged particles to at least one of the first electrode and thereference electrode.
 19. A process for the production of an electrodeformed of consolidated amorphous carbon, the process comprising:consolidating amorphous carbon using elevated temperature and pressure,wherein the consolidating is performed at a temperature of less than1000° C.
 20. The process set forth in claim 19, wherein theconsolidating is performed at a temperature in the range of 600-1000° C.21. The process set forth in claim 19, wherein the consolidating isperformed at a pressure in the range of 500-20,000 psi.
 22. The processset forth in claim 19, wherein the electrode has a surface area of atleast 800 m²/g.
 23. The process set forth in claim 19, wherein theelectrode has a porosity of at least 12%.
 24. The process set forth inclaim 19, wherein the electrode has a resistivity in the range of0.040-0.150 Ω·cm.
 25. The process set forth in claim 19, wherein theelectrode is used in at least one of the following applications: storingelectrical energy, desalinating water, deionizing water, recoveringmetal ions, removing solid particles from a slurry, removing pollutantsfrom at least one of a waste stream and water, electroplating metalions, and combinations thereof.
 26. The process set forth in claim 19,wherein the electrode is used in at least one of a battery and a fuelcell.